The Plossl was also called a Kellner Type III in some earlier references; in the 1950's, Edmund Scientific sold a "Kellner" eyepiece made from war surplus lenses, but it actually consisted of two achromats in the classic Plossl configuration. The Expanse is a lens that provides an extra sharp image, and it also has a wider field of view compared to the Plossl eyepiece. Differences and Similarities. Omni 12mm Eyepiece - 1.25" Learn More. Know what diameter eyepieces your scope takes. I really like the simplicity and compactness of these simpler designs (ie: Plssls, Orthos, Kellners, etc). Interesting points Philip. For the $66/$42 of these kits, you can get one or two decent eyepieces (depending on where you buy). 32mm (20x & 40x). No surprise there. Plssl eyepieces are affordable and they're outstanding additions to amateur telescopes. The eye relief is the distance between your eyes and the eyepiece where you are able to view the whole image comfortably. condition as described, a good transaction. These and the essentially identical AT Paradigm are universally praised as good quality eyepieces with a wider 60-degree apparent field of view. If you cant use 2, that 32 mm Plossl, which has a 50 degree AFOV, will give you about as wide a field of view as you can get in a 1.25 eyepiece. Comparing to Plossl, the Expanse eyepiece is a lot more expensive. What Does It Do. There are inexpensive adapters that will let you use standard 1.25 eyepieces in a .965 focuser/diagonal. Then there is a pair of 32mm and 20mm TV Plossls which make my binoviewers work well with a Daystar Quark H-alpha solar filter. They are a good brand with high-quality eyepieces, you just dont need to spend the extra money for almost no gain in performance. short answer: yes. https://telescopicwatch.com/best-barlow-lens-and-how-to/, Celestron 8-24 Zoom Review 2019-2023 Little Astronomy. That is the critical factor. The Regular Plossl eyepiece is made to be a basic type of scope for viewing objects that are nearbysay within two feet or so from where youre looking through it. Very nice article. Type above and press Enter to search. A wide range of focal lengths are available, all in 1.25-inch size. After these, we have mostly proprietary designs from various eyepiece companies. Tele Vue offers several series with apparent fields of view from 50 degrees to 120 degrees. I dont have a specific diagonal to recommend and I am not aware of any specific issues with the one that is included with the scope. https://telescopicwatch.com/best-telescope-mounts-for-astrophotography/, https://telescopicwatch.com/best-astrophotography-telescopes/, https://telescopicwatch.com/best-barlow-lens-and-how-to/, https://telescopicwatch.com/celestron-8-24mm-zoom-eyepiece-review/, https://www.amazon.com/Orion-8879-1-25-Inch-Enhanced-Telescope/dp/B000BMPBLK/ref=sr_1_8?crid=3KKUJRXYYN7DI&dchild=1&keywords=telescope+diagonal+1.25&qid=1610887695&sprefix=telescope+diagonal%2Caps%2C512&sr=8-8, https://telescopicwatch.com/orion-skyquest-xt8-intelliscope-review/, https://www.rothervalleyoptics.co.uk/baader-hyperion-mark-iv-8-24mm-universal-zoom-eyepiece.html, https://www.amazon.com/s?k=Orion+Q70&ref=nb_sb_noss_2, https://telescopicwatch.com/best-telescope-eyepieces/, https://www.amazon.com/Orion-8829-Wide-Field-Telescope-Eyepiece/dp/B000M89H7C/ref=sr_1_2?dchild=1&keywords=Orion+Q70&qid=1606584502&sr=8-2, https://www.amazon.com/Explore-Scientific-68%C2%B0-40mm-Eyepiece/dp/B007LMG3F6/ref=sr_1_1?dchild=1&keywords=explore+scientific+68&qid=1606584676&sr=8-1. Between Kellners and Plossls, this means a 32mm Plossl, which maximizes the field of view in the 1.25 barrel diameter format, will show more stars than either a 32mm Kellner with the same magnification but a smaller true field of view, or a 40mm Kellner (or 40mm 1.25 Plossl, which has a 40 degree apparent field of view) with a lower magnification and the same true field of view. Do you have any additional comments to help me? I am not aware of any such solutions for Newtonian reflectors. Note that the Explore Scientific 68 and 82 degree eyepieces are also available in 2 size for your low power wide view requirements. How Good Are Super Plossl Eyepieces for Astronomy? This is where the cheap eyepiece will frequently fail to deliver a good image, around the edges. To achieve these benefits, they may use special glass and more costly manufacturing. And you don't even have to get the full set if you don't want to. Take the AFOV of the eyepiece (provided by the mfg) in your case 82 degrees In the 1990s Meade instruments came up with a new design for the Meade 4000 line similar to Plossl that added a fifth glass element on top of the two pairs (4 total). In simple terms, high focal ratio scopes, say those over F6, tend to be less demanding on eyepieces than those below F6. We can see that 2 eyepieces have an advantage over 1.25 eyepieces when designers are making wide-view eyepieces. That is a wonderful expression. We may earn commissions by recommending products on this website. Divide that by the magnification of that eyepiece in that scope. I saw Jupiter today and its 4 moons but when I looked at saturn I struggled to get a really clear image and it was very small. I can say that most of my plossls have been replaced by other eyepieces for various reasons. So, for your 30 mm, 82/60 = 1.36 degrees. A standard Plossl eyepiece is typically between 20mm to 25mm but can range anywhere from 15mm up to about 40mm in diameter. Overall, I would highly recommend the goldline eyepieces. Theres a wide range of quality when it comes to Plossls and trusting the brand you are getting one from matters a lot if you dont want to get an eyepiece with lots of reflection or optical issues. However, sometimes i am at the end of the range of the binocular focus adjustment. And, in general terms, the higher the AFOV, the harder it is to make an eyepiece that will present a good image all across the field of view, which also drives up the cost. If that is the case, it will give me another reasonably good, inexpensive zoom to recommend to beginners. Even if we were next-door neighbors this would take weeks of discussion and planning. To achieve six magnifications, you can have six eyepieces. Lenses are fully multi-coated for excellent light transmission and reduced internal reflections. 75-225X, 1.5X Barlow There is no guarantee that you will be able to get a good image of any given target at that level of magnification on any given night. Lets take a look. A Plossl eyepiece is one of the most decent general-purpose eyepieces that are available on the market. Good quality. I dont think so. A long eye relief is also important for those who wear eyeglasses at the eyepiece, whether thats a member of the general public at a star party or an astronomer with astigmatism, which, unlike near- or far-sightedness, cannot be corrected with the telescopes own focuser. For example, if you put a 30 mm eyepiece in a 3X Barlow, it will triple the magnification you get from that eyepiece. I had a bino pair of TV 20mm Plossls, very fine for high power planetary observation with my long focus 8" Mak, then I also bought the older TV 21mm Plossl, after trying the 21mm I sold the more recent 20mm. i didnt have all this simply-put information when i bought my orion st-80 as my christmas present to myself in 2020. i started out with several pair of binoculars i bought used off ebay, then bought the scope. You also get 7 1.25 filters which include the following, #80A Blue Filter, #58 Green Filter, #56 Light Green Filter, #25 Red Filter, #21 . A key thing to remember is that eyepieces are universal. They also offer more eye relief than Plossls at the shorter focal lengths. Explore Scientific 68 34 mm or ES 82 30 mm would also be good choices at a significantly higher price but with better edge correction. Those that still come with Huygens and Ramsdens are generally cheap and low quality, since practically the only reason to use those designs in modern times is that they are extremely cheap to manufacture. No, adapters are not needed but they may come in handy when you want to change the focal length or add other lenses such as filters or Barlow lenses. I have personally tested a few Super Plossl and compared them to their regular counterparts by the same brand. Within the budget-friendly realm are the 6mm and 9mm Goldlines/Redlines (66-degree Ultra-Wide-Angle) for telescopes with a focal ratio of f/8 or longer, and the excellent 58-degree Planetary eyepieces, sold by a variety of sellers on Amazon and by Agena Astro, which come in a wide variety of focal lengths and are optically superb for their price. I do not miss beating my eyelashes against a 9.7mm Meade Plossl that I used to own. They are not that expensive I would pay about $100 for both eye pieces. But I think you will feel more confident about your purchases and be less likely to be disappointed if you read through the guide. So, basically a Plossl eyepiece is a type of eyepiece that enables the viewer to see a wider field of view than would normally be the case, but at the cost of him/her having to physically put his eye very close to the lens of the eyepiece. Good value. Focus on the magnifications rather than the mm of the eyepieces. Thanks all. As I mentioned earlier in the article, not all Plossls are created equal, which simply means that there are good Plossls and then there are bad Plossls. We will use a 100 mm telescope with a 600 mm focal length that only takes 1.25 eyepieces. Gold Line eyepieces also offer better eye relief than Plossl eyepieces, especially at the shorter focal lengths. Typically, these will be 25 mm and 10 mm or something close to that. My Barlow is a 2X with a removeable Barlow element that can be screwed right onto an eyepiece giving a 1.5X effect. Most telescopes come with one or two eyepieces. there are of course options to plossls which are about the same prices as GSOs such as the BST Discoveries and TMB type eyepieces (new from Skies the Limit on Ebay) which have a wider field and better eye relief than plossls and are probably as good as most things non-premium. People may have heard, and rightly so, that Huygens or Ramsdens are crummy eyepieces and that they should get a Plossl instead, and they may believe the same applies to Kellners, but the truth is that Kellners are often good eyepieces. But the longer FL units are certainly useful. Today, most beginner telescopes of any quality are sold with either Kellner or Plossl eyepieces. As for tabletop scopes, dont forget that you need a table, stool, or bench to place them. Would a higher magnification eyepiece help do you think or am I already pushing my telescope (XT8) to highest sensible magnification I can with BH zoom on setting 8mm and 2x Barlow? It uses two symmetrical pairs of glass elements (one convex and one concave) to pass the light. Tele Vue has eyepieces that approach $1000. Plossls are extremely versatile and can be used for all use cases. I already got the 10mm super wide because of the added eye relief but at 15mm both have the same eye relief. On the inside, they are exactly the same design. ORION SIRIUS PLOSSL 10mm telescope eyepiece 1.25" - $17.01. We have compared Plossl against Kellner eyepieces in a previous article. Your email address will not be published. This might contain more of what you need. If you look up transparency and seeing in the context of telescopes you can learn more about how atmospheric conditions will affect what magnifications you will choose on any given night. If you read the article you know how to calculate the magnification and field of view. Theres a reason Plossls are usually kept at 52 degrees. I am very near-sighted, barely see the big E on the vision chart without glasses. To say it a different way, in general, an F5 scope will place more demands on the eyepiece around the edge of the field of view than an F10 scope. Perhaps you have read about planetary eyepieces, DSO eyepieces, and other types of specific eyepieces. Does having a 70 vs 52 fov make a noticeable difference for double the price? An exit pupil larger than 6 mm may start to show a shadow of the secondary mirror. What should one opt for a 2 EP over a 1.25? That is up to you and your budget. Kellners are the other popular design for amateur stargazing, go ahead and check out that article if you want to dive deeper into the subject. Best Telescopes For 10 Year Old Kids: Reviews and Buying Guide, The Complete Guide to the Planets You Can See With a Telescope, The Best Barlow Lenses: Reviews and Buying Guide. Be aware of the focal ratio of your scope. I have not had an opportunity to test it yet but the general discussions have favorable. The zoom can be used with any 1.25 focuser too. I am considering buying another eyepiece, maybe 6mm, and a Barlow, maybe 2x, to give me a wider and higher range of magnification. Even when I upgraded to a 6mm Goldline, I kept the Kellner around because of pretty annoying kidney-bean blackout issues on the Moon with that eyepiece. As we continue, what would you recommend adding first? A very good quality eyepiece for a reasonable sum. What follows are specific eyepieces that I have tried, own, or have read so many good reports about that I feel very comfortable recommending them. I have four telescopes, but I use the same eyepieces in all of them. 6mm Kellner eyepiece that I enjoyed a lot. Focal length telescope / focal length eyepiece = magnification or power. They are most useful in medium and longer focal lengths for terrestrial, planetary, and lunar viewing. Nice, thank you again for the additional inputs. . Etc.? philhas Members 61 459 Location: North East England Plossl eyepieces are typically used for observing and viewing things at long distances, but they can also be useful when using a telescope to provide both magnifying power and erecting the images. These are things you will want to know and use. Not really. Low focal ratio scopes deliver the light rays to the eyepiece at an ever-increasing angle as the focal ratio number goes down. While eyepieces with relatively complex, proprietary, or bespoke designs are becoming more commonly available in the beginner price bracket, there is often good reason to choose a much simpler design. No price limit. I cannot thank you enough! They have a narrow AFOV but have a reputation for being very sharp.. Below .5 mm exit pupil, floaters in the eye become more apparent and can be bothersome. This design has some advantages over other designs, such as the Kellner eyepiece or Orthoscopic eyepieces. It allows each eyepiece to provide two magnifications. You are asking about a very specific eyepiece in a very specific scope combined sometimes with a Barlow. Understanding and using a Barlow Lens If you were considering a Meade Super Plossl, in that case just get the regular one also by Meade. This is the link to the one I plan to buy as I know some others come with add ons: https://www.rothervalleyoptics.co.uk/baader-hyperion-mark-iv-8-24mm-universal-zoom-eyepiece.html, Thats great you had an XT8i that makes me feel confident I got a good telescope . Orion SkyQuest XT8 Intelliscope Review If you are very demanding and must have the very best, this is where you want to be. Brilliant article and I thank you for it, I was literally really confused prior to reading it. But these are only intended to get you started. However, i can read very well without my glasses with almost microscopic vision and can use my binoculars without glasses. If you do not have your Hyperions yet I recommend you wait until you have these and try them out before you buy the Plossls. The BHZ in a 2X Barlow will take an XT8 to 300X. That is why I suggest, if you can use 2 eyepieces, you will want one or two low power wide view 2 eyepieces. The longer FL Plossls (>15mm) have some distinct advantages over more complex designs without the major disadvantage of Plossls which is short ER. Thus the 30 mm eyepiece in a 600 mm telescope produces 600/30 = 20X magnification while with the Barlow, we have 1800/30 = 60X. These sport a 60-degree apparent field of view, about a 20% wider apparent field of view than Plossl eyepieces. Yes, eyepieces is a large and complex topic. As I mentioned earlier in the article, not all Plossls are created equal, which simply means that there are good Plossls and then there are bad Plossls. Ive read reviews about my scope. Come join the newest, most engaging and inclusive astronomy forum geared for beginners and advanced telescope users, astrophotography devotees, plus check out our "Astro" goods vendors. Even though both eyepieces are very common in beginner telescopes, it has become harder to find Kellner eyepieces on their own in the last two years, whether they come from a brand name or the original equipment manufacturer or a reseller. They are 82-degree AFOV eyepieces. Now we can establish a target magnification range. The image quality is very good and the additional field of view and longer eye relief makes them very comfortable to use. https://telescopicwatch.com/celestron-starsense-explorer-dx-102-130-reviewed/, If I was to upgrade these lenses, I was planning on working toward something like this: Choose three focal lengths. The difference in TFOV will be significant at this focal length. Thank you so much for taking the time to provide all this information! Lets look at the minimum. I owned an XT8 Intelliscope which is the same optical tube on a PushTo mount. So, if your scope is F6 or lower, you may want to consider some of the higher priced, better corrected eyepieces if you want the best image to the edge of the field. Many Kellners are made with field stops opened up to 50 degrees, in which case it can truly compare to a Plossl in any telescope with a focal ratio of f/6 or slower. These are often compared to the higher priced offerings. Gold line eyepieces are available in 6mm, 9mm, 15mm, and 20mm focal lengths. One learns by observing. The result in magnification is the same and the eye relief associated with the eyepiece is retained or, in some cases, actually lengthened a bit. Orion Sirius Plossl 1.25" eyepieces are ideal for all types of telescopes: reflector, refractor, and catadioptrics such as Maksutov-Cassegrains. A Plossl eyepiece has a field of view thats very wide, so if youre looking at the full moon or some other object in space with it, chances are youll see the entire thing. (Focal ratio is a term that refers to the telescopes focal length divided by its aperture. Kellner eyepieces work perfectly with small and medium-sized telescopes. The big problem with Plssls is that the eye relief is about 0.75 times the focal length. Then there is the rule of thumb to avoid duplicating focal lengths when acquiring eyepieces. But for the targets requiring higher mag Im still undecided between: 20 = 90 = .8 Tip Its almost always cheaper to buy directly from Agena Astro. I have used these in my F6 and F5 Dobs and find them a good value for the price. A couple of them felt fancier, but the jump in performance was either insignificant or non-existent. Prices can run from $20 to $200 so the field is pretty broad. Although Kellner eyepieces will help you learn a lot in the beginning but soon will realize that youre missing out on something, and eventually you will be tempted to spend money on another good quality eyepiece. Unless you are a professional astronomer or extremely demanding, you can select your eyepieces based on magnification, the apparent field of view, eye relief, and price. Ever since, I have been attempting to cram in every fact about the Universe, I can find into my head. Yes, the wider field of view of a Plossl is very helpful, but 40 degrees of Kellners isnt a soda straw (unless you are used to looking through very wide field eyepiece. It should list what size eyepieces you can use. Not only is it good to share the experience but you can get first-hand advice on things like diagonals and may even be able to try one in your scope to see if it makes a difference. Customer reviews Average Rating (16 Reviews): Write a Review and share your opinions! I have a 4 element (traditional) and a 5 element 32mm Meade, both from the same era in Japan, and the 5 element is much better by quite a bit. The magnification and field of view is the same as a 10 mm eyepiece (AFoV being unchanged) in a 600 mm telescope but the eye relief is that of a 30 mm eyepiece. They have decent eye relief and little curvature of field. In the world of eyepieces, when you want the very best, turn to Tele Vue, but be prepared to pay a truly premium price. They have good center sharpness but exhibit some field curvature and astigmatism. What I can say is that, in general, eyepiece characteristics are inherent to the eyepiece. A 15mm Plssl might be worth it, if you dont wear glasses. I am going to use 6. This will give you a maximum target for planning purposes. Once we are done, they will make sense. Worth is a subjective evaluation, so here is my subjective input: 1. You can buy a range of these from Modern Astronomy. I possess an embarrassing array of fine eyepieces with names like Ethos and Nagler and Delos. Looking from different sorts I found the Baader Aspheric 31mm and 36mm.these two eyepieces allow me to switch between 2" and 1.25"just by changing the barrel. It will also make your life easier if youre out observing on windy days that would otherwise blow off the front cover of your telescope. I agree with your comment on zooms for kids. I also really liked my E-Lux 32mm, a Kellner. In order to help you narrow down your choices, weve created a short guide that can help you figure out what the best viable option is. Despite this, I also have some Plossls which are indispensable. Comparing to Plossl eyepieces, Super Plossl is somewhat better for astronomy. As the clear cut worlds best eyepiece manufacturer, their name should at least be mentioned in an article like this. You might be able to find a Kellner, or perhaps a high-quality Orthoscopic. Disclosure - If you buy something via our link, we may earn a commission with no additional expense to you. In 1860, Georg Simon Plossl invented the Plossl eyepiece. But for AP you should really start your planning with the mount. So plan this into such a purchase. However, some eyepieces have an eye relief as short as 5 mm. Lets just say that once you get below F5, it is really hard for the eyepiece to deliver a clean image to the edge. Question: would an 18mm Baader Classic Ortho mostly used for Moon and planets loose sharpness and contrast if used with a short F5 telescope like the Celestron Astro-Fi 130? Am I correct? This may be enough for many eyeglass wearers. This 10 mm Orion Sirius Plossl Eyepiece is a great, moderately high power ocular for observing small planetary nebulas and globular star clusters, as well as for planetary probing when seeing conditions don't permit higher magnifications. I must also warn you that some of these bad Plossls may actually turn out to be worse than any run-of-the-mill Kellner. They can also be found as Orion Expanse sporting a blue line rather than gold. 1. So perhaps you do your line up like this. In essence the design differences between Kellner and Plossl comes down to the number of lenses within the eyepiece barrel. Higher than 3X is usually reserved for astrophotography. A rubber safety cap protects the lens when not in use while also providing additional grip on this 35 mm Plossl eyepiece. Despite the narrow field of view and short eye relief, it showed shockingly good views of Saturn, Jupiter, and even the Moon. I continue to be very pleased with the ES82 eyepieces. Explore Scientific recently extended this offering by adding a series of 82 degree eyepieces labeled LER, or Long Eye Relief. So your 600 mm example (f/6) becomes, in effect, an 1800 mm focal length, f/18 but it does not change the focal length of the eyepiece. Both will provide the same magnification. This saves money and helps you shop in an organized manner. This is not a hard and fast rule, just a cautionary note. Best suited for telescopes with f-ratios f6 or slower. PayPal, cash, bank transfer are all acceptable. AP is all about the mount and accurate tracking. I also struggled to see features on both (gas bands on Jupiter and clear rings on saturn). The design of a Plossl eyepiece consists of an objective lens with one side that is convex (wider than its length) while the other side is plano-convex or flat in shape. You can enjoy wide-angle views without giving up any of the clarity or sharpness when using Plossl eyepiece while Kellner will give you more magnified views but at less than half the brightness levels in comparison to other lens designs on this list if light pollution was involved. There are some very good choices in this range. Many thanks, Sophie. At that price point, it couldnt compete with other 5-element devices like Erfle and Nagler eyepieces that had better performance. The one exception I would keep in mind would be when working with Newtonian reflector telescopes below F5. Free shipping for many products! This will give you a lower power and a medium to high power eyepiece, depending on the focal length of your scope. 1.25" 6.3mm 32mm 40mm Plossl eyepiece set give you a good variation in magnification for a wide range of targets with extra sharpness and long eye relief. If you are on a strict budget, this is a good choice as a zoom eyepiece. The view being presented to your eye in a low power eyepiece minimizes everything from optical aberrations in the telescope, to distortions from thermals or atmospheric conditions. Again, for no other reason than to compare it to the 17mm Hyperion and draw your own conclusions about Plssls. The image will be reversed left to right so you will need to get used to that. . Compared with a zoomable telescope eyepiece, they are pretty much the same in terms of the quality of the image. You can still get eyepieces, but there are few choices. They are referring to how much or how little distortion is visible as you look from the center of the image out toward the edge. They are also good for those who have astigmatism because they are designed to be more forgiving with eye placement. You could say Super Plossls are not much more than a marketing tactic these days. The reason a plano-convex lens is good for using with a telescope is that it provides for both magnifying and erecting the images. Once I knew how much I liked the zoom I upgraded to the Baader Hyperion Zoom. Yes, Plossl eyepieces are some of the most popular with amateurs and professionals alike. My Baader Hyperion Zoom is my most used and favorite eyepiece. A common problem are eyepiece kits, which are big boxes that some telescope suppliers will sell you with half a dozen eyepieces, most of which include annoyingly short focal length Plossl eyepieces. This type of eyepiece provides you with wide-field views without any distortion due to its use as an achromatic lens system which reduces chromatic aberrations by combining two lenses made from different types of glass materials together on each surface. A Plossl eyepiece has a lens thats plano-convex, which means it is flat on one side and convex on the other. You can use the same eyepiece on planets and deep-sky objects (DSOs). To get the best performance, you have to be willing to pay the price. If you plan to go longer than that you can get an AC adapter or a power tank. What apparent field of view and eye relief do I want? document.getElementById( "ak_js_1" ).setAttribute( "value", ( new Date() ).getTime() ); Our team of experts has reviewed and ranked 180+ telescopes based on price and quality. 70 mm scope will have a max of 140X for planning purposes. Of course, for the cost of the two Plossls, you could justify having them as spares or outreach EPs. The price can run to over $1000 per eyepiece. Note that the price categories are approximate, as prices can vary between retailers. The Astrovid 40X60mm Zoom Telescope Camera Lens Kit is a great choice for those looking to get a variety of lenses, at different magnifications. Their 50 to 52 degree AFOV is wide enough for general observing. In stargazing, eyepieces are as important as telescopes are. Good 32mm Plssls run around $30-$40. Eye Relief: This refers to how close your eye has to be to the lens in order to see the full field of view. The bottom line is that it is best to have several magnification choices so you can optimize the view. I think I will go for the BHZ because, as you say, I will be able to use it now and into the future. I often recommend the 2 in this series as excellent low-power wide view eyepieces, especially in scopes at focal ratios below F8. The components of a Plossl eyepiece are the two groups of lenses. The three-lens eyepiece that came out of this was much better at controlling false color fringing and other distortions, even in telescopes with short focal lengths. I have seen elsewhere discussions about the exit pupil of eyepieces. If you upgrade the telescope or add a second one, the eyepieces will work on that telescope too. Or is this overkill and am I better off saving money and going forward something like the Celestron Zoom? Its made up of four lenses in two groups. This can be very helpful for star hopping. The combination of high-quality optics and accessible prices have made them the favorite design for amateur astronomers and even professionals.
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